Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India. It was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

Taj Mahal is considered to be the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Persian, Islamic and Indian architectural styles.

In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. More recently it was voted by millions of people on the Internet to become one of the "New Seven Wonders of the World".

While the white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction began around 1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen.The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.Lahauriis generally considered to be the principal designer.

Origin and inspiration
In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their fourteenth child, Gauhara Begum.Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632, one year after her death.The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal.The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later.The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian architecture and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, and buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.

Architecture
The central focus of the complex is the tomb. This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.

The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.

The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height of around 35 metres (115 ft) is about the same as the length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" which is roughly 7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.

The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets — a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.

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Stonehenge

Stonehenge

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) west of Amesbury and 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds. Archaeologists had believed that the iconic stone monument was erected around 2500 BC, as described in the chronology below.

One recent theory, however, has suggested that the first stones were not erected until 2400-2200 BC, whilst another suggests that bluestones may have been erected at the site as early as 3000 BC (see phase 1 below). The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. The site and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 in a co-listing with Avebury Henge monument. It is a national legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument. Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage, while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.

Archaeological evidence found by the Stonehenge Riverside Project in 2008 indicates that Stonehenge served as a burial ground from its earliest beginnings. The dating of cremated remains found on the site indicate burials from as early as 3000 BC, when the initial ditch and bank were first dug. Burials continued at Stonehenge for at least another 500 years.

Etymology

The Oxford English Dictionary cites Ælfric's 10th-century glossary, in which henge-cliff is given the meaning "precipice", a hanging or supported stone, thus the stanenges or Stanheng "not far from Salisbury" recorded by 11th-century writers are "supported stones". William Stukeley in 1740 notes, "Pendulous rocks are now called henges in Yorkshire...I doubt not, Stonehenge in Saxon signifies the hanging stones." Christopher Chippindale's Stonehenge Complete gives the derivation of the name Stonehenge as coming from the Old English words stān meaning "stone", and either hencg meaning "hinge" (because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones) or hen(c)en meaning "hang" or "gallows" or "instrument of torture". Like Stonehenge's trilithons, medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, rather than the inverted L-shape more familiar today.

The "henge" portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as henges. Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a circular banked enclosure with an internal ditch. As often happens in archaeological terminology, this is a holdover from antiquarian usage, and Stonehenge is not truly a henge site as its bank is inside its ditch. Despite being contemporary with true Neolithic henges and stone circles, Stonehenge is in many ways atypical - for example, at over 24 feet tall, its extant trilithons supporting lintels held in place with mortise and tenon joints, make it unique.

History

Stonehenge evolved in several construction phases spanning at least 1500 years. There is evidence of large-scale construction on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscape's time frame to 6500 years.

Scholars believe that Stonehenge once stood as a magnificent complete monument. This cannot be proved as around half of the stones that should be present are missing, and many of the assumed stone sockets have never been found. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity is complicated by disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing, poor quality early excavation records, and a lack of accurate, scientifically verified dates. The modern phasing most generally agreed to by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right.

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Pyramid

Pyramid

Giant pyramids of Egypt is one of the seven wonders of the world today, had always been viewed as mysterious and majestic buildings by people. However, although many years had passed, after scholars and experts to use a large number of accurate research tools and sophisticated, is still unknown, who actually has made a giant high buildings and stately? Derived from human intelligence and achievement which can not be imagined at the top of the building? And what purpose made building? And at that time he has a usefulness that how or what does it mean?

Puzzle that continues to turn in everyone's mind for thousands of years, from start to finish is an unexplained mystery. Although historians say it was founded in 2000 over BC, but the opinion of such a fact can not explain the hesitancy that diinisiasikan by a large number of discovery research.

Myth and History of Archaeological Findings

Since the 6th century BC, Egypt was the royal refuge Poshi, who lost his position after standing for more than 2000 years, to receive power from outside the kingdom of Greece, Rome, the Islamic kingdom and the power of other nations. During that time a large number of famous works of Pharaoh destroyed, character and religious beliefs of the Egyptians themselves were gradually replaced by other cultures, so that the culture of ancient Egypt to be receding and destroyed, a generation later also lost a large number of relics that can decipher clues left by the predecessors.

Year 450 BC, after a Greek historian around and arrived in Egypt, added the inscription: Cheops, (Greek alphabet Khufu), reportedly said, was destroyed after 50 years. In a certain limit the Greek historian uses the phrase "allegedly said", meaning that the truth needs to be proven again. However, since it is the opinion of the Greek historians quote generations instead become important later as evidence that the pyramid of the royal dynasty founded in the 4th.

Until now, historians thought that the pyramids are the tombs of kings. Thus, once talked about the pyramid, which was crossing his mind without being realized is the jewelry and sparkling things. And, in the year 820 AD, when the governor-general of Islamic Cairo Caliph Al-Ma'mun lead the troops, first dig a secret passageway and into the pyramid, and when it impatiently into the room, a scene that looks only made him very disappointed. Not only are none of the objects that are usually buried with the body, such as pearls, and carvings, even a piece of glassware pieces were not there, only an empty stone coffin with no lid. While the wall was just a clean field blank, nor was there any written carvings.

Conclusion historians to achievement first entered this pyramid is "experiencing a robbery objects in the tomb." However, the results indicate a real investigation, the possibility of thieves entered the tomb of the pyramid through the other path is very small. Under normal conditions, the tomb is also unlikely thief can steal without leaving a trace, and more is no longer possible to delete all of the stele of Pharaoh is depicted on the walls. Compared with the other tombs are generally filled with jewels and treasures that abound, the giant pyramid that was built to commemorate the greatness of Pharaoh king became very different.

In addition, in a note "Inventory Stela", which is stored in the Cairo museum, never mentioned that the pyramids have been around since the beginning before the throne of Khufu continue. However, because the notes on the stone tablets were strongly challenged the traditional view, there are problems between the experts and the results of research on how writing the book, strongly condemned the further research value. Actually, within the limits of historical record that can be obtained, if for a particular view and then set aside some historical evidence, have unwittingly hold us be objective in looking at the history of the actual position.

Extraordinary Building Techniques

In Egypt, the pyramid there are so many various sizes, the default is not only much smaller, its structure too harshly. Among the pyramid that was established in the kingdom to-5, and 6, many of which have been damaged and destroyed, a heap of debris, such as the pyramid of King Menkaure as shown. Then, the great pyramid was built during the early, in an earthquake in the 13th century, where some stone walled outer have been destroyed, but due in part supported by the walls of the buffer, so that the entire structure remains very strong. Therefore, when building a giant pyramid, not just simply make three million stones into a cone shape, if there are deficiencies in the design of this special construction, partially damaged, it can lead to completely collapse because of the weight load supported.

Besides, how is the project of building the giant pyramids do, remains a topic that makes a headache scholars. In addition to considering the large number of stone and the power needed, the most important factor is the peak point of the pyramid should be in the field of basic right in the middle point of four corners. Because if the four corners sideways and slightly distorted, so when the cusp is not possible to close together at one point, it means that this building project failed. Therefore, it is an extremely important point, how is placed some 2.3 million -2.6 million units every stone boulder weighing 2.5 tons from the ground up as high as more than a hundred yards in space and installed from start to finish on right position.

As said by the author Graham Hancock in his article "Fingerprints of God": In place of this staggered, on one side of the body must maintain balance, and the other side must move one after another stone at least two times the weight of small cars to up, transported to the right place, and leads right into place, whether what he had in mind workers transport the stones. Although modern science has predicted a variety of ways and energy that makes it possible to build, but if the condition is considered real, we find that people are certainly have ability or physical strength which exceeds the ordinary of human, now can solve these giant projects will accuracy and precision accuracy.

To this, Jean Francois Champollion who got the title as the "Father of Modern Science of Ancient Egypt" estimates that people who set up a different pyramid with humans now, at least in the "thinking they have a higher body height of 100 feet just like a giant human being." He argued, in terms of making a pyramid, it is the work of a giant human.

Likewise, Master Li Hongzhi in his lecture at the 2002 North American tour also never mentioned that possibility. "Human beings can not understand how the pyramid was made. Stones are so great how people transport it? Some of the human person five feet tall giant who carries something, it is with humans now move a big rock is the same. To build the pyramid, the same human being as high as five meters we are now building a big building. "

Thought so will inevitably make us think, that the giant pyramids and a large number of ancient giant stone building found in various parts of the world have brought the same question to everyone: big and grand, is formed by using a very large stone structure, even drafting perfect. Like for example, in the suburbs north of Mexico there is the Castle Sacsahuaman compiled with giant stones that weigh more than 100 tonnes, of which there is a giant rock that reaches 28 feet high, estimated to weigh 360 tons (equivalent to 500 family cars). And on the plains southwest of England there is a giant rock formation, surrounded by dozens of giant rocks and forming a large roundabout, in between some rocks high as six meters. Actually, how can a group of humans who are they? Why always use a giant rock, and not using a stone that size in the range of our ability to build?

Sphinx, a lion-faced man who is also an important object of the research scientists, height of 20 meters, 73 meters overall length, considered to be established by the work of Pharaoh Khafre 4th. However, the former being eaten by rust (erosion) on the surface of the body of the Sphinx, scientists estimate that the period of manufacture may be earlier, at least 10 thousand years ago BC.

A scholar John Washeth also believes: That the giant Pyramid and the Sphinx with its close neighbor is building the kingdom of the other four completely different, he built during his more ancient than the period of the 4th kingdom. In his book "Space Serpent", John Washeth put forward: the development of Egyptian culture probably did not come from the Nile basin, but rather comes from the culture of an earlier and more severe than the ancient Egyptians thousands of years ancient, cultural heritage bequeathed by our unknown . This, in addition to building technological reasons described previously, and found on top of the statue of the Sphinx is badly eaten by rust has also proven this.

Rubich Swalle mathematician in "The Holy Science" shows: in the year 11 000 BC, the Egyptians must have had a great culture. At that time the Sphinx has been there, because the lion-faced human body, apart from the head, obviously there is a former erosion. Estimates are at a terrible floods in 11 000 BC and heavy rain which then resulted in the former alternating erosion.

Estimates of other erosion on the Sphinx is rain and wind. Washeth aside from the possibility of rain water, since during the past 9000 years in the highlands of the Arabian Peninsula, rain was always inadequate, and must track back up to 10 000 BC the new year there is such bad weather. Washeth also ruled out the possibility of erosion by wind, because the other limestone buildings in the kingdom to-four in fact did not experience the same erosion. Elephant-shaped writing and inscriptions left by the ancient kingdom there is no piece of stone ever experienced such severe erosion that occurred on the Sphinx.

Boston University professor and expert in terms of erosion of rock Robert S. also agrees with the view Washeth once showed: That the erosion suffered by the Sphinx, there are some parts that its depth reaches 2 feet more, so the zigzag when viewed from the outside corner, like a wave, obviously an ex after a wind gust and great for thousand years.

And Robert S. Washeth also showed that: Technology is not the ancient Egyptians may be able to carve such a large scale on a giant rock, art products that the technique is complicated.

If observed on the whole, we can logically conclude, that in ancient times, on the land of Egypt, once there is a very advanced culture, but due to the shift of the earth plates, continent submerged rock in the ocean, and a very ancient culture at that time finally removed, leaving the pyramids and Sphinx, using technology that perfect building.

In the long period of time on the ocean floor, a giant pyramid and the Sphinx has water depth and erosion for a long period, is the direct cause which resulted in severe erosion on the Sphinx. Because the building materials giant pyramid Peninsula is the result of human technology that is not known now, its water resistant capabilities far beyond the erosion of natural stone, while the Sphinx was carved with an overall natural stone, this might be the real cause of the giant pyramid eroded by sea water which is not visible from the surface.

Info for image: neighboring Sphinx near the pyramids seem very ancient giants. Scientists confirm that the body, such as irrigation channels and water erased, he has experienced some humid weather, so he was very maybe estimates that existed prior to 10 thousand years ago.

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Nile

Nile

Nile is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world.The Nile has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile, the latter being the source of most of the Nile's water and fertile soil, but the former being the longer of the two. The White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, with the most distant source in southern Rwanda at 2°16'55.92S 29°19'52.32E / 2.2822°S 29.3312°E / -2.2822; 29.3312, and flows north from there through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and southern Sudan.

While the Blue Nile starts at Lake Tana in Ethiopia at 12°2'8.8?N 37°15'53.11E / 12.035778°N 37.2647528°E / 12.035778; 37.2647528, flowing into Sudan from the southeast.

The two rivers meet near the Sudanese capital of KhartoumThe northern section of the river flows almost entirely through desert, from Sudan into Egypt, a country whose civilization has depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along the banks of the river. The Nile ends in a large delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea.

Etymology Of The Word Nile

The word "Nile" comes from Greek Neilos, of unknown derivation. In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called 'pi or iteru, meaning "great river", represented by the hieroglyphs shown on the right (literally itrw, and 'waters' determinative). In Coptic, the words piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic) meaning "the river" (lit. p(h).iar-o "the.canal-great") come from the same ancient name.

Tributaries And Distributaries

The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometres (1,256,591 sq mi), about 10% of the area of Africa.

There are two great tributaries of the Nile, joining at Khartoum: the White Nile, starting in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile, beginning in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift, the southern part of the Great Rift Valley. Below the Blue and White Nile confluence the only remaining major tributary is the Atbara River, which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around 800 kilometres (500 mi) long. During the dry period of January to June, there is typically no flow from the Atbara River. It flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. It joins the Nile approximately 300 kilometres (200 mi) north of Khartoum.

The Nile is unusual in that its last tributary (the Atbara) joins it roughly halfway to the sea. From that point north, the Nile diminishes because of evaporation.

The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over six groups of cataracts, from the first at Aswan to the sixth at Sabaloka (just north of Khartoum) and then turns to flow southward for a good portion of its course, before again returning to flow north to the sea. This is called the "Great Bend of the Nile".

North of Cairo, the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the Rosetta Branch to the west and the Damietta to the east, forming the Nile Delta.

The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the discharge at any given point along the mainstem depends on many factors including weather, diversions, evaporation and evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow.

Lost Headwaters

Formerly Lake Tanganyika drained northwards along the African Rift Valley into the Albert Nile, making the Nile about 900 miles (1,400 km) longer, until blocked in Miocene times by the bulk of the Virunga Volcanoes.

History

The Nile (iteru in Ancient Egyptian) has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the Stone Age, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. Climate change at the end of the most recent ice age led to the formation the Sahara desert, possibly as long ago as 3400 BC.

The Eonile
The present Nile is at least the fifth river that has flowed north from the Ethiopian Highlands. Satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. An Eonile canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents an ancestral Nile called the Eonile that flowed during the later Miocene (23–5.3 million years before present). The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean; several natural gas fields have been discovered within these sediments.

During the late-Miocene Messinian salinity crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred feet below world ocean level at Aswan and 8,000 feet (2,400 m) below Cairo. This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment when the Mediterranean was recreated, and is now underwater.

Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. The Nile was much longer at that time, with its furthest headwaters in northern Zambia.

The Integrated Nile

There are two theories in relation to the age of the integrated Nile. The first one is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age, and that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly of which fed a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and Sudan. Said (1981) postulates that Egypt itself supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history.

The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile and the Atbara and Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into Tertiary times.

Salama (1987) suggested that during the Tertiary (65 million to 2.588 million years ago) there were a series of separate closed continental basins, with each basin occupying one of the major parts of the Sudanese Rift System: Mellut Rift, White Nile Rift, Blue Nile Rift, Atbara Rift and Sag El Naam Rift. The Mellut Rift Basin is nearly 12 km deep at its central part. This rift is possibly still active, with reported tectonic activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The Sudd swamps which form the central part of the basin may still be subsiding. The White Nile Rift System, although shallower than Bahr al-Arab, is about 9 km deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be 5–9 km. These basins were not interconnected until their subsidence ceased, and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill up the basins to such a level that the basins became connected. The Egyptian Nile became connected to the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial head waters during the current stages of tectonic activity in the Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift Systems. The connection of the different Niles occurred during cyclic wet periods. The River Atbara overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods which occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. The Blue Nile was connected to the main Nile during the 70,000–80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile to the main system some 12,500 years ago.

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